This invention relates to electro-optic displays with reduced remnant voltage, and to methods for reducing remnant voltage in electro-optic displays. The term “remnant voltage” is used herein to refer to a persistent or decaying electric field that remains in certain electro-optic displays after an addressing pulse (a voltage pulse used to change the optical state of the electro-optic medium) is terminated. It has been found that such remnant voltages can lead to undesirable effects on the images displayed on electro-optic displays; in particular, remnant voltages can lead to so-called “ghosting” phenomena, in which, after the display has been rewritten, traces of the previous image are still visible. The present invention is especially, though not exclusively, intended for use in electrophoretic displays.
Electro-optic displays comprise a layer of electro-optic material, a term which is used herein in its conventional meaning in the imaging art to refer to a material having first and second display states differing in at least one optical property, the material being changed from its first to its second display state by application of an electric field to the material. Although the optical property is typically color perceptible to the human eye, it may be another optical property, such as optical transmission, reflectance, luminescence or, in the case of displays intended for machine reading, pseudo-color in the sense of a change in reflectance of electromagnetic wavelengths outside the visible range.
In the displays of the present invention, the electro-optic medium will typically be a solid (such displays may hereinafter for convenience be referred to as “solid electro-optic displays”), in the sense that the electro-optic medium has solid external surfaces, although the medium may, and often does, have internal liquid- or gas-filled spaces. Thus, the term “solid electro-optic displays” includes encapsulated electrophoretic displays, encapsulated liquid crystal displays, and other types of displays discussed below.
The term “gray state” is used herein in its conventional meaning in the imaging art to refer to a state intermediate two extreme optical states of a pixel, and does not necessarily imply a black-white transition between these two extreme states. For example, several of the patents and published applications referred to below describe electrophoretic displays in which the extreme states are white and deep blue, so that an intermediate “gray state” would actually be pale blue. Indeed, as already mentioned the transition between the two extreme states may not be a color change at all.
The terms “bistable” and “bistability” are used herein in their conventional meaning in the art to refer to displays comprising display elements having first and second display states differing in at least one optical property, and such that after any given element has been driven, by means of an addressing pulse of finite duration, to assume either its first or second display state, after the addressing pulse has terminated, that state will persist for at least several times, for example at least four times, the minimum duration of the addressing pulse required to change the state of the display element. It is shown in published U.S. Patent Application No. 2002/0180687 that some particle-based electrophoretic displays capable of gray scale are stable not only in their extreme black and white states but also in their intermediate gray states, and the same is true of some other types of electro-optic displays. This type of display is properly called “multi-stable” rather than bistable, although for convenience the term “bistable” may be used herein to cover both bistable and multi-stable displays.
The term “impulse” is used herein in its conventional meaning in the imaging art of the integral of voltage with respect to time. However, some bistable electro-optic media act as charge transducers, and with such media an alternative definition of impulse, namely the integral of current over time (which is equal to the total charge applied) may be used. The appropriate definition of impulse should be used, depending on whether the medium acts as a voltage-time impulse transducer or a charge impulse transducer.
Several types of electro-optic displays are known. One type of electro-optic display is a rotating bichromal member type as described, for example, in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,808,783; 5,777,782; 5,760,761; 6,054,071 6,055,091; 6,097,531; 6,128,124; 6,137,467; and 6,147,791 (although this type of display is often referred to as a “rotating bichromal ball” display, the term “rotating bichromal member” is preferred as more accurate since in some of the patents mentioned above the rotating members are not spherical). Such a display uses a large number of small bodies (typically spherical or cylindrical) which have two or more sections with differing optical characteristics, and an internal dipole. These bodies are suspended within liquid-filled vacuoles within a matrix, the vacuoles being filled with liquid so that the bodies are free to rotate. The appearance of the display is changed by applying an electric field thereto, thus rotating the bodies to various positions and varying which of the sections of the bodies is seen through a viewing surface. This type of electro-optic medium is typically bistable.
Another type of electro-optic display uses an electrochromic medium, for example an electrochromic medium in the form of a nanochromic film comprising an electrode formed at least in part from a semi-conducting metal oxide and a plurality of dye molecules capable of reversible color change attached to the electrode; see, for example O'Regan, B., et al., Nature 1991, 353, 737; and Wood, D., Information Display, 18(3), 24 (March 2002). See also Bach, U., et al., Adv. Mater., 2002, 14(11), 845. Nanochromic films of this type are also described, for example, in U.S. Pat. No. 6,301,038, International Application Publication No. WO 01/27690, and in U.S. Patent Application 2003/0214695. This type of medium is also typically bistable.
Another type of electro-optic display, which has been the subject of intense research and development for a number of years, is the particle-based electrophoretic display, in which a plurality of charged particles move through a suspending fluid under the influence of an electric field. Electrophoretic displays can have attributes of good brightness and contrast, wide viewing angles, state bistability, and low power consumption when compared with liquid crystal displays. Nevertheless, problems with the long-term image quality of these displays have prevented their widespread usage. For example, particles that make up electrophoretic displays tend to settle, resulting in inadequate service-life for these displays.
As noted above, electrophoretic media require the presence of a suspending fluid. In most prior art electrophoretic media, this suspending fluid is a liquid, but electrophoretic media can be produced using gaseous suspending fluids; see, for example, Kitamura, T., et al., “Electrical toner movement for electronic paper-like display”, IDW Japan, 2001, Paper HCS1-1, and Yamaguchi, Y., et al., “Toner display using insulative particles charged triboelectrically”, IDW Japan, 2001, Paper AMD4-4). See also European Patent Applications 1,429,178; 1,462,847; 1,482,354; and 1,482,354; and International Applications WO 2004/090626; WO 2004/079442; WO 2004/077140; WO 2004/059379; WO 2004/055586; WO 2004/008239; WO 2004/006006; WO 2004/001498; WO 03/091799; and WO 03/088495. Such gas-based electrophoretic media appear to be susceptible to the same types of problems due to particle settling as liquid-based electrophoretic media, when the media are used in an orientation which permits such settling, for example in a sign where the medium is disposed in a vertical plane. Indeed, particle settling appears to be a more serious problem in gas-based electrophoretic media than in liquid-based ones, since the lower viscosity of gaseous suspending fluids as compared with liquid ones allows more rapid settling of the electrophoretic particles.
Numerous patents and applications assigned to or in the names of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and E Ink Corporation have recently been published describing encapsulated electrophoretic media. Such encapsulated media comprise numerous small capsules, each of which itself comprises an internal phase containing electrophoretically-mobile particles suspended in a liquid suspending medium, and a capsule wall surrounding the internal phase. Typically, the capsules are themselves held within a polymeric binder to form a coherent layer positioned between two electrodes. Encapsulated media of this type are described, for example, in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,930,026; 5,961,804; 6,017,584; 6,067,185; 6,118,426; 6,120,588; 6,120,839; 6,124,851; 6,130,773; 6,130,774; 6,172,798; 6,177,921; 6,232,950; 6,249,271; 6,252,564; 6,262,706; 6,262,833; 6,300,932; 6,312,304; 6,312,971; 6,323,989; 6,327,072; 6,376,828; 6,377,387; 6,392,785; 6,392,786; 6,413,790; 6,422,687; 6,445,374; 6,445,489; 6,459,418; 6,473,072; 6,480,182; 6,498,114; 6,504,524; 6,506,438; 6,512,354; 6,515,649; 6,518,949; 6,521,489; 6,531,997; 6,535,197; 6,538,801; 6,545,291; 6,580,545; 6,639,578; 6,652,075; 6,657,772; 6,664,944; 6,680,725; 6,683,333; 6,704,133; 6,710,540; 6,721,083; 6,727,881; 6,738,050; 6,750,473; 6,753,999; 6,816,147; 6,819,471; and 6,822,782; and U.S. Patent Applications Publication Nos. 2002/0019081; 2002/0060321; 2002/0063661; 2002/0090980; 2002/0113770; 2002/0130832; 2002/0131147; 2002/0171910; 2002/0180687; 2002/0180688; 2003/0011560; 2003/0020844; 2003/0025855; 2003/0053189; 2003/0102858; 2003/0132908; 2003/0137521; 2003/0137717; 2003/0151702; 2003/0214695; 2003/0214697; 2003/0222315; 2004/0008398; 2004/0012839; 2004/0014265; 2004/0027327; 2004/0075634; 2004/0094422; 2004/0105036; 2004/0112750; and 2004/0119681; and International Applications Publication Nos. WO 99/67678; WO 00/05704; WO 00/38000; WO 00/38001; WO00/36560; WO 00/67110; WO 00/67327; WO 01/07961; WO 01/08241; WO 03/107,315; WO 2004/023195; WO 2004/049045; WO 2004/059378; WO 2004/088002; WO 2004/088395; and WO 2004/090857.
Many of the aforementioned patents and applications recognize that the walls surrounding the discrete microcapsules in an encapsulated electrophoretic medium could be replaced by a continuous phase, thus producing a so-called polymer-dispersed electrophoretic display, in which the electrophoretic medium comprises a plurality of discrete droplets of an electrophoretic fluid and a continuous phase of a polymeric material, and that the discrete droplets of electrophoretic fluid within such a polymer-dispersed electrophoretic display may be regarded as capsules or microcapsules even though no discrete capsule membrane is associated with each individual droplet; see for example, the aforementioned 2002/0131147. Accordingly, for purposes of the present application, such polymer-dispersed electrophoretic media are regarded as sub-species of encapsulated electrophoretic media.
A related type of electrophoretic display is a so-called “microcell electrophoretic display”. In a microcell electrophoretic display, the charged particles and the suspending fluid are not encapsulated within microcapsules but instead are retained within a plurality of cavities formed within a carrier medium, typically a polymeric film. See, for example, International Application Publication No. WO 02/01281, and published US Application No. 2002/0075556, both assigned to Sipix Imaging, Inc.
Many of the aforementioned E Ink and MIT patents and applications also contemplate microcell electrophoretic displays and polymer-dispersed electrophoretic displays. The term “encapsulated electrophoretic displays” can refer to all such display types, which may also be described collectively as “microcavity electrophoretic displays” to generalize across the morphology of the walls.
Another type of electro-optic display is an electro-wetting display developed by Philips and described in Hayes, R. A., et al., “Video-Speed Electronic Paper Based on Electrowetting”, Nature, 425, 383-385 (2003). It is shown in copending application Ser. No. 10/711,802, filed Oct. 6, 2004 (now U.S. Pat. No. 7,420,549), that such electro-wetting displays can be made bistable.
Other types of electro-optic materials may also be used in the present invention. Of particular interest, bistable ferroelectric liquid crystal displays (FLC's) are known in the art and have exhibited remnant voltage behavior.
Although electrophoretic media are often opaque (since, for example, in many electrophoretic media, the particles substantially block transmission of visible light through the display) and operate in a reflective mode, many electrophoretic displays can be made to operate in a so-called “shutter mode” in which one display state is substantially opaque and one is light-transmissive. See, for example, the aforementioned U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,130,774 and 6,172,798, and U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,872,552; 6,144,361; 6,271,823; 6,225,971; and 6,184,856. Dielectrophoretic displays, which are similar to electrophoretic displays but rely upon variations in electric field strength, can operate in a similar mode; see U.S. Pat. No. 4,418,346. Other types of electro-optic displays may also be capable of operating in shutter mode.
An encapsulated or microcell electrophoretic display typically does not suffer from the clustering and settling failure mode of traditional electrophoretic devices and provides further advantages, such as the ability to print or coat the display on a wide variety of flexible and rigid substrates. (Use of the word “printing” is intended to include all forms of printing and coating, including, but without limitation: pre-metered coatings such as patch die coating, slot or extrusion coating, slide or cascade coating, curtain coating; roll coating such as knife over roll coating, forward and reverse roll coating; gravure coating; dip coating; spray coating; meniscus coating; spin coating; brush coating; air knife coating; silk screen printing processes; electrostatic printing processes; thermal printing processes; ink jet printing processes; electrophoretic deposition; and other similar techniques.) Thus, the resulting display can be flexible. Further, because the display medium can be printed (using a variety of methods), the display itself can be made inexpensively.
The bistable or multi-stable behavior of particle-based electrophoretic displays, and other electro-optic displays displaying similar behavior (such displays may hereinafter for convenience be referred to as “impulse driven displays”), is in marked contrast to that of conventional liquid crystal (“LC”) displays. Twisted nematic liquid crystals act are not bi- or multi-stable but act as voltage transducers, so that applying a given electric field to a pixel of such a display produces a specific gray level at the pixel, regardless of the gray level previously present at the pixel. Furthermore, LC displays are only driven in one direction (from non-transmissive or “dark” to transmissive or “light”), the reverse transition from a lighter state to a darker one being effected by reducing or eliminating the electric field. Finally, the gray level of a pixel of an LC display is not sensitive to the polarity of the electric field, only to its magnitude, and indeed for technical reasons commercial LC displays usually reverse the polarity of the driving field at frequent intervals. In contrast, bistable electro-optic displays act, to a first approximation, as impulse transducers, so that the final state of a pixel depends not only upon the electric field applied and the time for which this field is applied, but also upon the state of the pixel prior to the application of the electric field.
Also, to obtain a high-resolution display, individual pixels of a display must be addressable without interference from adjacent pixels. One way to achieve this objective is to provide an array of non-linear elements, such as transistors or diodes, with at least one non-linear element associated with each pixel, to produce an “active matrix” display. An addressing or pixel electrode, which addresses one pixel, is connected to an appropriate voltage source through the associated non-linear element. Typically, when the non-linear element is a transistor, the pixel electrode is connected to the drain of the transistor, and this arrangement will be assumed in the following description, although it is essentially arbitrary and the pixel electrode could be connected to the source of the transistor. Conventionally, in high resolution arrays, the pixels are arranged in a two-dimensional array of rows and columns, such that any specific pixel is uniquely defined by the intersection of one specified row and one specified column. The sources of all the transistors in each column are connected to a single column electrode, while the gates of all the transistors in each row are connected to a single row electrode; again the assignment of sources to rows and gates to columns is conventional but essentially arbitrary, and could be reversed if desired. The row electrodes are connected to a row driver, which essentially ensures that at any given moment only one row is selected, i.e., that there is applied to the selected row electrode a voltage such as to ensure that all the transistors in the selected row are conductive, while there is applied to all other rows a voltage such as to ensure that all the transistors in these non-selected rows remain non-conductive. The column electrodes are connected to column drivers, which place upon the various column electrodes voltages selected to drive the pixels in the selected row to their desired optical states. (The aforementioned voltages are relative to a common front electrode which is conventionally provided on the opposed side of the electro-optic medium from the non-linear array and extends across the whole display.) After a pre-selected interval known as the “line address time” the selected row is deselected, the next row is selected, and the voltages on the column drivers are changed to that the next line of the display is written. This process is repeated so that the entire display is written in a row-by-row manner.
The aforementioned 2003/0137521 describes how a direct current (DC) imbalanced waveform can result in a remnant voltage being created, this remnant voltage being ascertainable by measuring the open-circuit electrochemical potential of a display pixel.
For reasons explained at length in the aforementioned copending applications, when driving an electro-optic display it is desirable to use a drive scheme that is DC balanced, i.e., on which has the property that, for any sequence of optical states, the integral of the applied voltage is zero whenever the final optical state matches the initial optical state. This guarantees that the net DC imbalance experienced by the electro-optic layer is bounded by a known value. For example, a 15 V, 300 ms pulse may be used to drive an electro-optic layer from the white to the black state. After this transition, the imaging layer has experienced 4.5 V-s of DC-imbalanced impulse. To drive the film back to white, if a −15 V, 300 ms pulse is used, then the imaging layer is DC balanced across the series of transitions from white to black and back to white.
It has now been found that remnant voltage is a more general phenomenon in electrophoretic and other impulse-driven electro-optic displays, both in causes and effects. It has also been found that DC imbalances cause long-term lifetime degradation of electrophoretic displays.
Remnant voltage has been measured in electrophoretic displays by starting with a sample that has not been switched for a long period of time (e.g. hours or days). A voltmeter is applied across the open pixel circuit and a “Base Voltage” reading is measured. An electric field is then applied to the pixel, for example a switching waveform. Immediately after the waveform ends, the voltmeter is used to measure the open-circuit potential over a series of periods, and the difference between the measured reading and the original Base Voltage is regarded as the “remnant voltage”.
The remnant voltage decays in a complex manner which may be loosely approximated mathematically as a sum of exponentials. In typical experiments, 15 V was applied across the electro-optic medium for approximately 1 second. Immediately after the end of this voltage pulse, a remnant voltage of between +3 V and −3 V was measured; 1 second later a remnant voltage of between +1 V and −1 V was measured; ten minutes later the remnant voltage was near zero (relative to the original Base Voltage).
The term “remnant voltage” is sometimes used herein as a term of convenience referring to an overall phenomenon. However the basis for the switching behavior of impulse-driven electro-optic displays is the application of a voltage impulse (the integral of voltage with respect to time) across the electro-optic medium. As shown in FIG. 1 of the accompanying drawings, which is a typical graph of remnant voltage against time, remnant voltage reaches a peak value, designated 102, immediately after the application of a driving pulse (the time scale in FIG. 1 is essentially arbitrary), and thereafter decays substantially exponentially, as indicated by curve 104 in FIG. 1. The persistence of the remnant voltage for a significant time period applies a “remnant impulse” represented by the area 106 under curve 104, to the electro-optic medium, and strictly speaking it is this remnant impulse, rather than the remnant voltage, that is responsible for the effects on the optical states of electro-optic displays normally considered as caused by remnant voltage.
In theory the effect of remnant voltage should correspond directly to remnant impulse. In practice, however, the impulse switching model can lose accuracy at low voltages. Some electro-optic media, including preferred electrophoretic media used in experiments described herein, have a small threshold, such that a remnant voltage of about 1 V does not cause a noticeable change in the optical state of the medium after a drive pulse ends. Thus, two equivalent remnant impulses may differ in actual consequences, and it may be helpful to increase the threshold of the electro-optic medium to reduce the effect of remnant voltage. E Ink has produced electrophoretic media having a “small threshold” adequate to prevent remnant voltage experienced in typical use from immediately changing the display image after a drive pulse ends. If the threshold is inadequate or if the remnant voltage is too high, the display may present a kickback/self-erasing or self-improving phenomenon.
Even when remnant voltages are below a small threshold, they do have a serious effect on image switching if they still persist when the next image update occurs. For example, suppose that during an image update of an electrophoretic display a +/−15 V drive voltage is applied to move the electrophoretic particles. If a +1 V remnant voltage persists from a prior update, the drive voltage would effectively be shifted from +15 V/−15 V to +16 V/−14 V. As a result, the pixel would be biased toward the dark or white state, depending on whether it has a positive or negative remnant voltage. Furthermore, this effect varies with elapsed time due to the decay rate of the remnant voltage. The electro-optic material in a pixel switched to white using a 15 V, 300 ms drive pulse immediately after a previous image update may actually experience a waveform closer to 16 V for 300 ms, whereas the material in a pixel switched to white one minute later using the exact same drive pulse (15 V, 300 ms) may actually experience a waveform closer to 15.2 V for 300 ms. Consequently the pixels may show noticeably different shades of white.
If the remnant voltage field has been created across multiple pixels by a prior image (say a dark line on a white background) then the remnant voltages may also be arrayed across the display in a similar pattern. In practical terms then, the most noticeably effect of remnant voltage on display performance is ghosting. This problem is in addition to the problem previously noted, namely that DC imbalance (e.g. 16 V/14 V instead of 15 V/15 V) may be a cause of slow lifetime degradation of the electro-optic medium.
Ghosting or similar visual artifacts may be measured optically by a photometer. In handheld device display screens, two neighboring pixels with the same target brightness should differ in actual brightness by less than 2L* (where L* has the usual ICE definition:L*=116(R/R0)1/3−16where R is the reflectance and R0 is a standard reflectance value), preferably less than 1L*, and ideally less than 0.3L* to avoid user objection.
If a remnant voltage decays slowly and is nearly constant, then its effect in shifting the waveform does not vary from image update to update and may actually create less ghosting than a remnant voltage that decays quickly. Thus the ghosting experienced by updating one pixel after 10 minutes and another pixel after 11 minutes is much less than the ghosting experienced by updating one pixel immediately and another pixel after 1 minute. Conversely, a remnant voltage that decays so quickly that it approaches zero before the next update occurs may in practice cause no detectable ghosting. Accordingly, for practical purposes, remnant voltages that are greater than about 0.2 V for a duration of between 10 ms and one hour, and most specifically between 50 ms and 10 minutes, give rise to most concern.
As will be evident from the discussion above, the effects of remnant voltage are reduced by minimizing the remnant impulse. As shown in FIG. 1, this can be accomplished by reducing the peak remnant voltage or by increasing the decay rate. In theory, it might be predicted that if it were possible to measure remnant voltage instantaneously and perfectly after the completion of a drive pulse, the peak remnant voltage would be nearly equal in magnitude but opposite in sign to the voltage of the drive pulse. In practice, a good deal of the remnant voltage appears to decay so quickly (e.g. less than 20 ms) that the “peak” remnant voltage measured experimentally is much smaller. Thus, the “peak” remnant voltage may be reduced in practice by either (1) operating the display at a lower voltage or (2) increasing the very fast decay that occurs within the initial milliseconds after an image update and which results in very low remnant impulse. In essence, other than operating at a lower voltage, one main way to reduce remnant impulse is to increase decay rates.
There are multiple potential sources of remnant voltage. It is believed (although this invention is in no way limited by this belief), that a primary cause of remnant voltage is ionic polarization within the materials of the various layers forming the display.
Such polarization occur in various ways. In a first (for convenience, denoted “Type I”) polarization, an ionic double layer is created across or adjacent a material interface. For example, a positive potential at an indium-tin-oxide (“ITO”) electrode may produce a corresponding polarized layer of negative ions in an adjacent laminating adhesive. The decay rate of such a polarization layer is associated with the recombination of separated ions in the lamination adhesive layer. The geometry of such a polarization layer is determined by the shape of the interface, but is typically planar in nature.
In a second (“Type II”) type of polarization, nodules, crystals or other kinds of material heterogeneity within a single material can result in regions in which ions can move or less quickly than the surrounding material. The differing rate of ionic migration can result in differing degrees of charge polarization within the bulk of the medium, and polarization may thus occur within a single display component. Such a polarization may be substantially localized in nature or dispersed throughout the layer.
In a third (“Type III”) type of polarization, polarization may occur at any interface that represents a barrier to charge transport of any particular type of ion. An important example of such an interface in a microcavity electrophoretic display is the boundary between the electrophoretic suspension including the suspending medium and particles (the “internal phase”) and the surrounding medium including walls, adhesives and binders (the “external phase”). In many electrophoretic displays, the internal phase is a hydrophobic liquid whereas the external phase is a polymer, such as gelatin. Ions that are present in the internal phase are typically insoluble and non-diffusible in the external phase and vice versa. On the application of an electric field perpendicular to such an interface, polarization layers of opposite sign will accumulate on either side of the interface. When the applied electric field is removed, the resulting non-equilibrium charge distribution will result in a measurable remnant voltage potential that decays with a relaxation time determined by the mobility of the ions in the two phases on either side of the interface.
Polarization typically occurs during a drive pulse. Typically, each image update is an event that affects remnant voltage. A positive waveform voltage can create a remnant voltage across an electro-optic medium that is of the same or opposite polarity (or nearly zero) depending on the specific electro-optic display, as discussed below.
It will be evident from the foregoing discussion that polarization occurs at multiple locations within the electrophoretic or other electro-optic display, each location having its own characteristic spectrum of decay times, principally at interfaces and at material heterogeneities. Depending on the placement of the sources of these voltages (in other words, the polarized charge distribution) relative to the electro-active component (for example, the electrophoretic suspension), and the degree of electrical coupling between each kind of charge distribution and the motion of the particles through the suspension, or other electro-optic activity, various kinds of polarization will produce more or less deleterious effects. Since an electrophoretic display operates by motion of charged particles, which inherently causes a polarization of the electro-optic layer, in a sense a preferred electrophoretic display is not one in which zero remnant voltages are always present in the display, but rather one in which the remnant voltages do not cause objectionable electro-optic behavior. Ideally, the remnant impulse will be minimized and the remnant voltage will decrease below 1 V, and preferably below 0.2 V, within 1 second, and preferably within 50 ms, so that that by introducing a minimal pause between image updates, the electrophoretic display may effect all transitions between optical states without concern for remnant voltage effects. For electrophoretic displays operating at video rates or at voltages below +/−15 V these ideal values should be correspondingly reduced. Similar considerations apply to other types of electro-optic display.
To summarize, remnant voltage as a phenomenon is at least substantially a result of ionic polarization occurring within the display material components, either at interfaces or within the materials themselves. Such polarizations are especially problematic when they persist on a meso time scale of roughly 50 ms to about an hour. Remnant voltage can present itself as image ghosting or visual artifacts in a variety of ways, with a degree of severity that can vary with the elapsed times between image updates. Remnant voltage can also create a DC imbalance and reduce ultimate display lifetime. The effects of remnant voltage are therefore usually deleterious to the quality of the electrophoretic or other electro-optic device and it is desirable to minimize both the remnant voltage itself, and the sensitivity of the optical states of the device to the influence of the remnant voltage.
Several approaches to reducing or eliminating ghosting and visual artifacts resulting from remnant voltage are described in previous E Ink patent applications. For example, the aforementioned 2003/0137521 and copending application Ser. No. 10/879,335 describe so-called “rail stabilized” drive schemes in which the electro-optic medium is periodically driven to one of the “optical rails” (the two extreme optical states of the electro-optic medium) where a small remnant voltage does not have an appreciable effect on the optical state. Copending application Ser. No. 10/837,062, filed Apr. 30, 2004 (Publication No. 2005/0012980, now abandoned) describes controlling the capsule height and pigment level of an electrophoretic medium so that when switching to black and white a small remnant voltage will not cause a noticeable optical change.
While such approaches are useful for monochrome displays, they do not address the root cause of remnant voltage. In addition, while somewhat helpful for gray scale or color displays, these approaches do not completely solve the problem of addressing the system to gray levels, because gray levels in electrophoretic displays are typically dependent on mixing fractions of white and black particles without benefit of a physical wall to correct for differences in particle speed, and therefore gray scale addressing is typically more susceptible to small differences between the target waveform and the actual voltage experienced by the electrophoretic medium.
In the method described in the aforementioned 2003/0137521, a remnant voltage is measured, and a corrective balancing impulse is applied either immediately after each image transition, or periodically, to achieve a zero remnant voltage state. This is helpful for both monochrome and grayscale addressing. However, it is not always practical to measure remnant voltage using the means described in the aforementioned 2003/0137521.
The present invention seeks to provide additional addressing methodologies for electro-optic displays which will reduce ghosting caused by remnant voltage but which will not require measurement of remnant voltage at the pixel level. The present invention also seeks to provide additional addressing methodologies for electro-optic displays that do measure remnant voltage, but which are improved over the aforementioned method, as well as alternative means of measuring remnant voltage. The methods of the present invention may be useful in electro-optic displays other than electrophoretic displays. The present invention also seeks to provide electro-optic materials, manufacturing methods, and designs that will minimize remnant voltage. Reducing remnant voltage may be accomplished by reducing peak remnant voltage, accelerating the rate of voltage decay, or any combination thereof.